Over 240 fisherfolk were missing after cyclone Ockhi hit India’s south-western coasts. Lack of adoption of safety measures points to gross negligence of safety of fisherfolk at sea. The mandatory suggestions of various international and national level agencies have been neglected. In this regard, synergistic action between policymakers, implementing agencies and fisherfolk is required to translate policies to action. Awareness generation and mandatory trainings are suggested to improve fisherfolk safety, while community support is vital for the success of policy enforcement. The cyclone Ockhi, which created havoc on the western coast of India during December 2017, has raised many questions regarding the safety of fisherfolk at sea. The debate over efficacy of a disaster warning system notwithstanding, low or no use of safety measures by fisherfolk deserves critical attention and policy focus. Across the globe, marine capture fisheries remain one of the most hazardous occupations(Perez-Labajos 2008; Lincoln and Lucas 2010; Roberts 2010). The International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates that over 24,000 fisherfolk die every year, besides suffering damages to craft and gear. Evidence in some of the northern countries suggests that the risks of fatal accidents while fishing have reduced by about half to an average of about 1 per 1,000 person-years over a period of time (Jensen et al 2014). Implementation of safety programmes seemed to have a positive impact in this. It emerges that much of the disasters, particularly human loss, could have been avoided with usage of appropriate technologies and by following the prescribed regulations. Various agencies like the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), ILO and International Maritime Organization (IMO) have stressed the need for popularising sea-safety measures. However, the adoption of these measures in India is found to be low. In this context, based on reviews, expert consultations and focused group discussions with stakeholders, this article identifies various intervention points for providing safety while fishing at sea. Marine Fisheries in India A growing body of evidences points to the nutritional and health benefits of fish consumption. In tune with this, and along with rising per capita income, the domestic demand for fish is on the increase. It is projected to touch 16 million tonnes by 2030 compared to the current projection of about 10.5 million tonnes (ICAR 2011). Fish-based industries are also thriving due to technological advancements in fishing, processing, packaging and quality management. Efforts to have a greater horizontal and vertical spread in export markets are also gaining momentum. Much of the exported fish comes through deep-sea fishing, which is a highly skilled job. In the entire marine fish value chain, fishing remains the most dangerous line of work, particularly for traditional fisherfolk. The Parliamentary Standing Committee on Home Affairs noted that even five months after cyclone Ockhi, nearly 244 fisherfolk were still missing, with a dim chance of return (Hindu 2018). In India, the hazardous nature of marine fishing has come to the fore on several occasions earlier too, including during the tsunami in 2004. Risks while Fishing at Sea The FAO, ILO, and IMO are the important international agencies concerned with the safety of fisherfolk at sea. The Code of Conduct and Technical Guidelines on Responsible Fisheries developed by the FAO (2015) clearly specify the role of states in ensuring the safety of fisherfolk. It requires that the states ensure availability of fishing facilities and equipment to those employed in fishing operations, allow for safe, healthy and fair working and living conditions, and meet internationally agreed upon standards adopted by relevant international organisations. The health and safety standards adopted should not be less than the minimum requirements of relevant international agreements. It also emphasises the need for education and training programmes to enhance awareness and skills of fisherfolk in relation to health and safety standards. The recent National Policy on Marine Fisheries by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare states, The government will ensure that safety-at-sea measures are adequately strengthened and implemented. Such measures inter alia will include provisions of lifesaving appliances (such as Distress Alerting Transmitter, Automatic Identification System) and communication equipment on the vessels and developing adequate skills and capacity of fishers and other concerned stakeholders. (GoI 2017) The policy also points to the fact that regional cooperation in safety and security of fisherfolk is also necessary as the upper Indian Ocean, especially the Bay of Bengal, witnesses high number of adverse weather events, and every year many fishers lose their lives or suffer extreme hardships as a result. Safe fishing is an integral component of the code of conduct of responsible fisheries proposed by the FAO. The implementing agencies in India for the code are the departments/ministries of fisheries of various state governments, to be assisted with the research inputs from the Central Institute of Fisheries Technology (CIFT), Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI), and the Central Institute of Fisheries Nautical and Engineering Training (CIFNET), all under the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare. Equipment for Safety and Rescue States like Kerala have made the possession of life jackets, lifebuoys, life rafts, and firefighting appliances in mechanised boats mandatory for registration. Equipping them with the required navigational lights (all-round lights), fishing signal lights, day signals for fishing, at least one torch, mirror reflector (heliograph) and pyrotechnics (consisting four rocket parachutes and six red hand fliers) are among the mandated materials to meet the emergency situation. Besides, carrying vitaminised energy foods of at least 10,000 kilo jules per person, and 1.5 litres of drinking water per person onboard, in a watertight container is also mandated. One study has reported that only about 49% and 40% of the surveyed fishers use lifebuoys and life jackets respectively, in Kerala, with wide regional variations even within the state (Aip et al 2014). Early Warning Systems and Communication Under-preparedness to meet the disasters, lack of an effective institutional mechanism for early warnings and apathy on the part of the fisherfolk when it comes to taking the warnings seriously, are the major factors that contribute to the high level of fatalities in India. These risks further add to the worries of the coastal communities, whose livelihoods are vulnerable compared to other sections of the society. The impact of the disaster can be minimised to a great extent by mechanisms for early warnings and its timely propagation. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) is the agency responsible for transmitting weather forecasts to respective state governments well in advance. This information needs to be passed on quickly to ensure faster rescue operations and other adaptive mechanisms. The communication can be either from the land to the fisherfolk at sea or among the fisherfolk operating at the sea. Communication at sea is a challenging task for fisherfolk. The role of effective communication influences several sectors of fisheries, including fisherfolk’s safety and price discovery of fish. Land-based communication networks can be accessed only a few nautical miles (NM) from the shore. Beyond that, very high frequency (VHF) radiotelephone seta combination of transmitter and receiver which operates on standard international frequenciesis the most commonly used communication instrument. However, the reach is limited to 30 nautical miles and requires a licence to operate. Though it is common in mechanised fishing boats, traditional crafts do not have it. Fisherfolk are either ignorant of VHF protocol, or simply choose to ignore it. Since many mechanised boats undertake deep-sea fishing beyond the limits of 30 NM, medium frequency/high frequency (MF/HF) transmitters are considered a better option. But these require a licence issued by the concerned department of the government for which a Maritime Mobile Service Identity (MMSI) number is mandatory. At present fishing vessels do not have the MMSI number. A distress alert transmitter (DAT) is also recommended in all fishing boats to seek help from the coastguard when fisherfolk are in trouble. Pressing any of the four buttons (fire, medical help, leakage and accident) will send a signal to the central server located at Bengaluru, with details of the boat, location and nature of distress, which is then passed on to the nearest coastguard station. However, false alarms, misuse, non-use and misleading messages were often reported which creates troubles for the rescue teams. Safe handling of the equipment is also a major issue. Another recommendation is the automatic identification system (AIS), which was introduced as collision avoidance tool for ships. It helps vessels to continuously broadcast their id entity and position using VHF frequency, and allows them to track other boats. The Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) was introduced and developed through the IMO to ensure rapid alerting of shore rescue authorities and vessels in the immediate vicinity at the time of a marine disaster, using terrestrial and satellite technology. The global implementation of GMDSS services became effective in 1999. The concept of carrying the electronic equipment according to the vessel’s size has been changed to carry equipment as per the area of vessel’s operation. For this, the total navigable sea area has been divided into four areas, namely A1, A2, A3 and A4. Area A1 is the reach of VHF station, which is approximately a distance of 30 NM from a VHF coast station. A2 is the area beyond 30 NM up to approximately 300 NM, which is within the reach of MF coast radio station. A3 is the area beyond A1 and A2 (defined as the area between 70º N and 70º S excluding area A1 and A2) where vessels can use HF sets or satellite communication systems (INMARSAT). A4 is mainly polar region areas, where satellite communication is not possible and so HF is the only solution. The Kerala government, in collaboration with the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), has come forward to equip the fishing vessels with high frequency communication systems (NavIC). The system is said to be effective in communicating from the surface to fisherfolk at sea, but has a technological limitation where communication back from sea is not possible, and is still being perfected. C mobile, a private initiative, operating in the Neendakara coast of Kerala, is exclusively meant for fisherfolk for facilitating their communication needs. Discussion with fisherfolk/boat owners (during February 2018) indicated that they have to purchase the equipment and pay a monthly user charge/subscription fee. With a subscriber base of 400 fisherfolk, the operators at Neendakara claim to cover up to 100 kilometres from the shore. Satellite phones can overcome this deficiency. Though all satellite phones are not allowed, those working in INMARSAT are allowed. However, the cost is exorbitantly high. Against this background, establishing cost-effective, two-way communication systems for fisherfolk need to be thought of. Basic Survival Skills Another issue of concern is the safety of the vessel itself. Over-capitalisation of marine fisheries has been widely discussed(Kurien and Achari 1990; Devaraj and Vivekanandan 1999; Ravi et al 2014). In a rush to supersede competing vessels, boat owners fit high-power engines and modify boat parameters, thereby straying from the optimal technical recommendations, and hampering the safety of the vessels at sea. CIFT, under the aegis of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) had developed optimal parameters for fishing craft and gear. The most important requirement of any marine vehicle is a stability check. It is mandatory to prepare a stability booklet following construction of the vessel. But for fishing crafts, this is not mandatory for registration. Thus, it is highly advisable to conduct annual/biannual inspections of all vessels after the initial five years, in order to check for safety parameters like strength of the boat, working condition of the engine, navigational lights and fittings, communication equipment, life-saving and firefighting equipment, water tightness of doors, engine room and port holes, in addition to hull inspection. Negligence in conducting these inspections can lead to unintended consequences. Since fishing has evolved from a traditional vocation, fishing and survival skills are considered tacit knowledge, which is inherent among fisheries communities, and they are exposed to the local knowledge system from childhood itself. The issue of safety is exacerbated in the context of the heavy influx of migrant workers, especially from non-coastal areas, who often do not possess even having basic swimming skills. Thus, preparing them with the minimal requirement like swimming is essential. Need for Awareness Generation The world over, fisherfolk, particularly those involved in traditional and non-industrialised fishing, rely mostly on their own wisdom, common sense and skill in life-threatening situations (McDonald and Kucera 2007). An investigation into the awareness of fisherfolk on sea safety measures and their use in India shows that these are not very popular (Srinath and Rajeev 1995). Some amount of negligence is also seen on the part of the boat owners in equipping their vessels with safety and communication equipment, and while inspecting the strength and stability of boats. Fisherfolk highlight a number of reasons for not using safety equipment, a major one being the cost of equipment like life jackets and lifebuoys. Incentivising the fisherfolk through subsidised credit and strong penalty on defaulters are policy options to deal with this situation. Monitoring and enforcement alone cannot successfully ensure the enaction of safety regimes in the marine fisheries sector. Rather, it is more important to spread awareness about available safety options and their proper usage. A strong and vibrant extension system is needed to create awareness of safety measures among fisherfolk. Training should be conducted in a targeted manner. Such a system can function effectively only with adequate policy support. One such area of urgent intervention is insurance for craft, gear and for the fisherfolk. Further discussion indicates inadequate coverage of insurance facility for both personnel and loss of fishing material at sea. Fisherfolk are found to be reluctant to leave the craft/gear and rescue themselves during disasters due to lack of insurance for their craft and gear, and the fear of losing their only means of livelihood. Awareness generation among traditional fisherfolk, along with incentivising the adoption of safety practices, even with state expenses, could be serving a greater cause. Ensuring access to institutional facilities like credit and insurance could be a key instrument to inculcate safety-sensitive behaviour. Compared to the mechanised fisheries sector, the traditional sector is more prone to risk. Not only are the traditional crafts ill-equipped with communication and navigation techniques, but have little training on safety aspects. Sheer braveness and experience are their strength to cope with the roughness of the sea. With the advent of motorisation, traditional fisherfolk have started exploiting offshore fishing opportunities. Though it helps to avoid the competition in coastal waters as well as target new resources, there is an increase in risk. Safety regulations for motorised craft are yet to be initiated. Fisherfolk Training Fisherfolk, often experienced and hailing from a fishing background, tend to underrate risks at sea (Davis 2012). Establishment of fisherfolk training centres is an urgent step to equip them with safety measures. Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Fishing Vessel Personnel (STCW-F) sets the certification and minimum training requirements for the crews of seagoing fishing vessels of 12 metres and above in length. The modules of the STCW-F such as personal survival techniques (PST), personal security and social responsibility (PSSR), emergency first aid (EFA) and fire prevention and firefighting, which are mandatory for the crew of commercial vessels, as per merchant navy regulations, need to be made compulsory for fisherfolk also. Many of the boat drivers (serangs) do not even possess the necessary licence to operate the boat, let alone adopt safety measures. However, this requires infrastructure facilities. The Government of Kerala imparts training to fisherfolk through CIFNET. Besides, some private firms and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are providing awareness camps and trainings, but the scale of their operation is grossly inadequate to meet the needs. Countries like Canada and Oman, which have a high stake in marine capture fisheries in deep waters, have mandated compulsory training for fisherfolk before venturing into the sea. A study in the United States suggested that training and awareness programmes are inadequate to meet the safety challenges (Davis 2012). In India, fisheries being a traditional occupation, many have not received any kind of training. A sudden move towards training may not find favour, but a gradual and calibrated approach may find acceptance over a period of time. Translating Policy into Action Translating the policies and regulations at the grass-roots level is the most important task. It is widely acknowledged that development of a working legal framework of reference is critical in implementing any strategy towards safety of fisherfolk (Perez-Labajos 2008). However, fisherfolk often need not necessarily identify a valid need for regulations, due to the multitude of reasons, including several personal reasons as well as confidence in dealing with the risk at hand through several approaches(Thorvaldsen 2013). Anecdotal evidence indicates that hiring safety equipment from private agencies and producing them at the time of registration is an usual malpractice in India. Although the marine enforcement wing is entrusted with monitoring and enforcement of rules, they often face financial, human resources and infrastructural constraints. The pressure to complete registrations at the earliest makes the situation worse. Fisherfolk are at the lower rung of the social development, and social security measures are needed to mainstream them. Sea security is an integral component of the social security of fisherfolk (Kurien and Paul 2000). In implementation of the safety measures, cooperation of boat owners/fisherfolk is the key element, without which it is difficult to even obtain accurate information on the number of men and vessels at the sea. The traditional knowledge and wisdom of the fisherfolk ought to be used in safety and rescue operations. Targeted approach of all stakeholders, including community leaders, is critical in ensuring the cooperation of fisherfolk in adopting safety measures at sea. For emergency situations, an integrated approach involving various stakeholdersfisherfolk, social institutions, navy/air force, and state department and research institutionsis more effective, as observed during the recent Ockhi experience. Information on vessels operating from locations other than the harbours is scant and is not reflected in the official statistics. In the light of these experiences, strengthening the information system on marine fishing is a critical step. Further, community support from fisherfolk is vital in spreading awareness and adoption of the safety measures. This is so to adopt long-term strategies for protection of fisherfolk living in coastal zones (Kurien 2005). Such efforts need to be supplemented by research on both engineering and social aspects of fisherfolk safety. Conclusions The fisheries sector has an important role in Indian economy in terms of employment generation, nutritional security, foreign exchange earnings and livelihood generation for a population of about 15 million. Fisherfolk who brave the odds at the sea deserve a better standard of life, though the reality is often different. Security of life and livelihood is an integral part of the development discourse. In order to achieve inclusive growth ensuring safe fishing in a rapidly globalising world, a support led strategy needs to be given due emphasis. Achieving higher growth in fisheries with a concern for fisherfolk can yield rich social benefits in terms of avoiding loss of men and material at sea. A judicious blend of both promotional and protective measures, aided by institutions in awareness generation and enforcement structure is the need of the hour. In any such attempt, ensuring the support of the fisherfolk community is vital.